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Domestic rabbit

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This article is about the domesticated form of the European rabbit. For the wild variety, see European rabbit. For all rabbit species, see Rabbit.

Domestic rabbit
Domesticated
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Genus: Oryctolagus
Species:
O. cuniculus
Subspecies:
O. c. subsp. domesticus
Trinomial name
Oryctolagus cuniculus subsp. domesticus

The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus) is the domesticated form of the European rabbit, a member of the lagomorph order. A male rabbit is known as a buck, a female as a doe, and a young rabbit as a kit. There are hundreds of rabbit breeds, originating from all over the world.

Rabbits were first domesticated and used for their food and fur by the Romans. Rabbits may be housed inside, but the idea of the domestic rabbit as a house companion, a so-called house rabbit (similar to a house cat), was only strongly promoted starting with publications in the 1980s. Rabbits can be trained to use a litter box and taught to come when called, but they require exercise and can damage a house or injure themselves if it has not been suitably prepared, based on their innate need to chew. Accidental interactions between pet rabbits and wild rabbits, while seemingly harmless, are strongly discouraged due to the species' different temperaments as well as wild rabbits potentially carrying diseases.

Unwanted pet rabbits sometimes end up in animal shelters, especially after the Easter season. In 2017, they were the United States' third most abandoned pet. Some of them go on to be adopted and become family pets in various forms. Because their wild counterparts have become invasive in Australia, pet rabbits are banned in the state of Queensland. Domestic rabbits, bred for generations under human supervision to be docile, lack survival instincts, and perish in the wild if they are abandoned or escape from captivity.

Domestic rabbits are raised as livestock for their meat, wool (in the case of the Angora breeds) and/or fur. They are also kept as pets and used as laboratory animals. Specific breeds are used in different industries; Rex rabbits, for example, are commonly raised for their fur, Californians are commonly raised for meat and New Zealands are commonly used in animal testing for their nearly identical appearance. Aside from the commercial or pet application, rabbits are commonly raised for exhibition at shows.

Terminology and etymology

[edit]

Male rabbits are called bucks; females are called does. An older term for an adult rabbit is coney, while rabbit once referred only to the young animals.[1] Another term for a young rabbit is bunny, though this term is often applied informally (especially by children and rabbit enthusiasts) to rabbits generally, especially domestic ones. More recently, the term kit or kitten has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A young hare is called a leveret; this term is sometimes informally applied to a young rabbit as well. A group of rabbits is known as a "colony" or a "nest".[2]

The word rabbit itself derives from the Middle English rabet, a borrowing from the Walloon robète, which was a diminutive of the French or Middle Dutch robbe.[3]

History

[edit]

Phoenician sailors visiting the coast of Spain c. 12th century BC, mistaking the rabbit for a species from their homeland (the rock hyrax Procavia capensis), gave the region the name i-shepan-ham (land or island of hyraxes).[4] The spread of the European rabbit from its native range of the Iberian Peninsula is linked to the deliberate introduction of the species to Africa by the Phoenicians around this time period, followed by later introductions to the regions of Italy, England, and Ireland by various seafaring groups.[5]

The captivity of rabbits as a food source is recorded as early as the 1st century BC, when the Roman writer Pliny the Elder described the use of rabbit hutches, along with enclosures called leporaria.[6] In Rome, rabbits were raised in large walled colonies with walls extended underground.[7] According to Pliny, the consumption of unborn and newborn rabbits, called laurices, was considered a delicacy.[8]

In the Middle Ages, wild rabbits were often kept for the hunt. Monks in southern France were crossbreeding rabbits at least by the 12th century AD.[6] This was thought to have occurred as early as 600 AD in order to provide a 'meat substitute' for the monks during lent, which is a Christian observance in which one must refrain from eating meat.[9] Domestication was probably a slow process that took place from the Roman period (or earlier) until the 1500s,[6] around which point rabbit was a meat served as a luxury.[10]

Depiction of rabbit hunting in Queen Mary Psalter (1340)
A medieval depiction of ladies who are hunting rabbits in a warren using cages and ferrets. Queen Mary's Psalter (1340)

In the 19th century, as animal fancy in general began to emerge, rabbit fanciers began to sponsor rabbit exhibitions and fairs in Western Europe and the United States. Breeds of various domesticated animals were created and modified for the added purpose of exhibition, a departure from the breeds that had been created solely for food, fur, or wool. The rabbit's emergence as a household pet began during the Victorian era.[11] The keeping of the rabbit as a pet commencing from the 1800s coincides with the first observable skeletal differences between the wild and domestic populations, even though captive rabbits had been exploited for over 2,000 years.[6]

The emerging domestic rabbit subspecies, all breeds of which have been derived from the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus),[12] has been popular in the United States since the late 19th century. What became known as the "Belgian Hare Boom" began with the importation of the first Belgian Hares from England in 1888 and, soon after, the founding of the American Belgian Hare Association, the first rabbit club in America. From 1898 to 1901, many thousands of Belgian Hares were imported to America.[13] Today, the Belgian Hare is one of the rarest breeds, with only 132 specimens found in the United States in a 2015 census.[14]

Titian, Madonna of the Rabbit (c. 1530)
Beatrix Potter and one of her rabbits

Rabbits as house companions began appearing with frequency in the late 19th century.[15][16][17] The most notable documentation is from Beatrix Potter's published diaries and letters.[18] Potter allowed both rabbits to live at least part time in the house with her. "Both were fond of the fire, and one used to lie inside the fender", and one rabbit slept, "under the grate on the hot ashes when the fire had gone out."[19] The publication of Marinell Harriman's House Rabbit Handbook: How to Live with an Urban Rabbit in 1985 was another significant push towards the popularization of rabbits as indoor pets.[20][21][22]

Biology

[edit]

Genetics

[edit]

Main article: Cuniculture § Genetics

The study of rabbit genetics is of interest to fanciers, the fiber and fur industry, medical researchers, and the meat industry. Among rabbit fanciers, the genetics of rabbit health and diversity are paramount. The fiber & fur industry focuses on the genetics of coat color and hair properties.[23] In the biomedical research community and the pharmaceutical industry, rabbit genetics are important in model organism research, in vitro fertilization, and toxicity testing.[24] The meat industry mainly relies on genetics for feed conversion ratios and reproduction potential in rabbits.[25]

The rabbit genome has been sequenced and is publicly available.[26] The mitochondrial DNA has also been sequenced.[27] In 2011, parts of the rabbit genome were re-sequenced in greater depth in order to expose variation within the genome.[24]

  • Rabbit coat pattern & color genes
  • Gene = du Pattern: Dutch Gene = B Color: Black (on white)
    Gene = du
    Pattern: Dutch
    Gene = B
    Color: Black (on white)
  • Gene = e(j) Pattern: Harlequin
    Gene = e(j)
    Pattern: Harlequin
  • Gene = Enen Pattern: Broken Gene = D Color: Chocolate (on white)
    Gene = Enen
    Pattern: Broken
    Gene = D
    Color: Chocolate (on white)
  • Gene = si Silvering of the hair shaft
    Gene = si
    Silvering of the hair shaft

There are 7 main color gene groups (or loci) in rabbits, with an additional 4 uncommon loci that are often breed specific; many other genes exist that influence coat color to a lesser degree.[28] A rabbit's coat has either two pigments (pheomelanin for yellow, and eumelanin for dark brown) or no pigment (for an albino rabbit). Clusters of color genes plus their modifiers control such aspects as coat patterns (e.g. Dutch or English markings), color hues and their intensity or dilution, and the location of color bands on the hair shaft (e.g., silvering).[29]

Diet

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As a refinement of the diet of the wild rabbit, the diet of the domestic rabbit is often a function of its purpose. Show rabbits are fed for vibrant health, strong musculoskeletal systems, and—like rabbits intended for the fur trade—optimal coat production and condition. Rabbits intended for the meat trade are fed for swift and efficient production of flesh, while rabbits in research settings have closely controlled diets for specific goals. Nutritional needs of the domestic rabbit may also be focused on developing a physique that allows for the safe delivery of larger litters of healthy kits. Optimizing costs and producing feces that meet local waste regulations may also be factors.[30]

Hay is an essential part of the diet of all rabbits and it is a major component of the commercial food pellets that are formulated for domestic rabbits and available in many areas. Most rabbit pellets are alfalfa-based for protein and fiber, with other grains completing the carbohydrate requirements. Minerals and vitamins are added during production of rabbit pellets to meet the nutritional requirements of the domestic rabbit. Along with pellets, many commercial rabbit raisers also feed one or more types of loose hay; alfalfa in particular is used for the growth needs of young rabbits,[31] though it may be too high in protein and calcium for adult rabbits.[32] Common sources of hay for rabbits include bluegrass, brome, fescue, marsh, orchard, timothy, oat and ryegrass.[33]

Reproduction

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Further information: Rabbit health § Spaying and neutering
Rabbit kits suckling

Rabbits are prolific breeders, in part because rabbits reach breeding age quickly. To prevent unwanted offspring, rabbits may be spayed or neutered at sexual maturity. Sexual maturity is determined as the point at which the production rate of spermatozoa stops increasing, which ranges based on the size of the breed: 4–5 months for small breeds (e.g., Mini Rex, Netherland Dwarf), 4–6 months for medium-sized breeds (e.g., Rex, New Zealand), and 5–8 months for large breeds (e.g., Flemish Giant).[34][35] Bucks usually require more time to sexually mature than does.[36]

Health

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Main article: Rabbit health
The wild rabbit and its skeleton, by Johann Daniel Meyer (1752)

Rabbit health is a well-studied area in veterinary medicine, owing to the long history of rabbit domestication and the use of rabbits as laboratory animals. In pet rabbits, disease is rare when raised in sanitary conditions and provided with adequate care. Rabbits have fragile bones, especially in their spines, and need support on the bottom when they are picked up. In domestic rabbits, a significant concern is that they will gnaw on almost anything, including electrical cords (possibly leading to electrocution), potentially poisonous plants, and material like carpet and fabric that may cause life-threatening intestinal blockages.[37][38][39]

Domestic practices that are associated with adverse health effects in rabbits include spaying females,[40] declawing,[41] and improper housing leading to sore hocks and stress.[42] Domestic rabbits, like wild rabbits, are also susceptible to viral diseases such as myxomatosis,[43] rabbit hemorrhagic disease,[44] and West Nile virus,[45] and vaccination is not required or possible for these diseases in all jurisdictions.[46]

Breeds

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Main article: List of rabbit breeds
Gemüsestilleben mit Häschen, by Johann Georg Seitz (1870)

As of 2017, there were at least 305 breeds of domestic rabbit in 70 countries around the world.[47] The American Rabbit Breeders Association currently recognizes 52 rabbit breeds[48] and the British Rabbit Council recognizes 106.[49] Selective breeding has produced rabbits ranging in size from dwarf to giant. Across the world, rabbits are raised as livestock (in cuniculture) for their meat,[50] pelts,[51] and wool,[52] and also by fanciers and hobbyists as pets.[53]

Rabbits have been selectively bred since ancient times to achieve certain desired characteristics.[54] Variations include size and body shape, coat type (including hair length and texture),[55] coat color,[56] ear carriage (erect or lop), and ear length.[57] As with any animal, domesticated rabbits' temperaments vary in such factors as energy level and novelty seeking.

Many genetic defects in the domestic rabbit (such as dental problems in the Holland Lop breed) are due to recessive genes.[58] Genetics are carefully tracked by fanciers who show rabbits, to breed out defects.[59]

As pets

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A 9-month-old dwarf house rabbit visiting the outdoors with a harness and leash

Rabbits have been kept as pets in Western nations since the 19th century.[53] Rabbits can bond with humans,[60] and can learn to follow simple voice commands and to come when called.[61]: 166 

Rabbits are easily injured by rough handling, can bite when hurt or frightened, and are easily frightened by loud noises and sudden motions, which has caused them to be discouraged for use as pets for children.[62] With the right guidance, rabbits can be trained to live indoors.[63]

Rabbits are especially popular as pets in the United States during the Easter season, due to their association with the holiday. However, animal shelters that accept rabbits often complain that during the weeks and months following Easter, there is a rise in unwanted and neglected rabbits that were bought as Easter gifts, especially for children.[64] Similar problems arise in rural areas after county fairs and the like, even in jurisdictions where animals are not legal as prizes in fairground games.[65][66][67]

There are many humane societies, animal shelters, and rescue groups that have rabbits available for pet adoption.[68] Fancy rabbit breeds are often purchased from pet stores, private breeders, and fanciers. Breed availability varies based on geographic distribution, with some breeds being more popular in different countries or regions.[69] Because of the destructive history of feral rabbits in Australia, domestic rabbits are illegal as pets in Queensland.[70]

House rabbits

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Rabbits may be kept inside as small pets. Rabbits that live indoors are less exposed to the dangers of predators, parasites, diseases, adverse weather, and pesticides, which in turn increases their lifespan.[37] Cages are generally too small for most rabbits to live comfortably—even laboratory rabbits require significant space and enrichment[71]—and rabbit welfare groups recommend that instead of a cage, domestic rabbits free-roam.[72] The House Rabbit Society recommends "rabbit-proofing" areas to reduce the risks associated with their intrinsic need to chew.[37][73] Rabbits are easily litter box trained.[74]

Two house rabbits in their litter box

Bonding

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Rabbits are social animals and will bond with other rabbits in or around their territory.[75] Rabbit welfare groups encourage owners to make efforts towards bonding rabbits as part of normal socialization, which usually involves carefully supervised meetings between rabbits on neutral territory. This helps minimize territorial aggression and allows the rabbits to establish a hierarchy.[76] Over time, rabbits learn to tolerate each other's presence, form a social bond, and engage in vital social behaviors such as grooming, playing, and snuggling.[39]

A bonded rabbit pair

During bonding, as rabbits become more comfortable with each other's presence, they often engage in mutual grooming sessions.[77]

When rabbit bonds break, it can have detrimental effects on their physical and emotional well-being. Rabbits are highly social animals, and sudden separation from a bonded partner can cause stress and anxiety. This stress can lead to health issues, such as gastrointestinal problems, reduced appetite, and even a weakened immune system. Additionally, the sudden absence of a grooming partner can result in neglected fur, making the rabbit more susceptible to matting and skin issues.[78]

Owners should only attempt to bond spayed/neutered rabbits to prevent unwanted pregnancies and as their hormones can make bonding difficult and potentially dangerous.[79]

Dogs and cats pose a threat to rabbits unless trained and properly managed, and will not bond the same way rabbits will with each other. Rabbits are not compatible with birds or guinea pigs despite the fact they used to be kept together commonly in the past. [80][81]

Care

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Not all veterinarians will treat rabbits, and pet owners may have to seek out an exotic animal veterinarian for their rabbit's care. Rabbits may hide signs of illness or disease, and literature published on the care of house rabbits recommends owners to regularly schedule veterinary checkups to identify hidden issues.[82] Works on rabbit care also advise regular nail trimming, coat brushing and items to chew on.[83]

Baby rabbits under eight weeks old are susceptible to enteritis, along with gut stasis and bloat.[84]

Pet rabbits can often exhibit behavioral problems, including aggression towards humans and other animals, particularly with poor husbandry. Rabbits may or may not react favorably to handling and petting, depending on their personality and how they were raised.[39] Rabbit owners can seek behavioral help through their vets and rabbit behaviorists.[85]

Rabbit skeletons are light and fragile in comparison to their bodies, and are susceptible to trauma from falling, twisting and kicking. Improper handling of rabbits can lead to injury both to the rabbit and the owner.[86] Rabbits also have needs that differ from other common household pets, which can lead to poor quality of life for the animal if their owners are unaware of these needs and often results in rabbits being returned to animal shelters.[87] Inappropriate treatment of a rabbit can include inadequate diet, housing, or socialization.[88][89] Rabbits also have a body language that is more subtle than that of common domestic pets, such as cats and dogs,[90] and compared to these species are prey animals rather than predators, which poses different challenges to a potential owner.[91]

The diet of a pet rabbit is variable and differs from that of wild rabbits, which may have to consume lower-quality food items such as twigs and shrubs to survive. Publications on the care of house rabbits advise various diets based on age in order to ensure the longevity of a pet.[92][31]

Housing

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A Holland Lop hiding

Rabbits can live outdoors in properly constructed, sheltered enclosures, which provide protection from the elements in winter and keep rabbits cool in summer heat. To protect from predators, rabbit enclosures are usually situated in, shed, barn, or other enclosed structure, which may also contain a larger pen for exercise. It is recommended that a pair of average size rabbits are kept in an area of at least 3m x 2m by 1m high.[93] Outdoor housing arrangements in hutches or unsupervised periods when rabbits are outdoors, even when properly secured, may still pose hazards such as temperature extremes, lack of social interaction between rabbits, and disease from.[94][95]

Shows

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Main article: Rabbit show

Much like conformation shows for dog breeds and cat shows for pedigreed cats, rabbits can be exhibited at rabbit shows, where they may be judged based on breed standards. Some argue rabbit shows are unethical as they involve transporting and caging the animals in stressful conditions. Most rabbit shows are organized or sanctioned by the American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA),[96] which recognizes 52 breeds in its Standard of Perfection 2021–2025.[97] However, rabbit shows have been organized by various groups since at least the 19th century.[98][99]

Show rabbits are judged based on physical conformation to a published breed standard,[100] and may separately include a behavioral or "showmanship" assessment. Important criteria in rabbit judging include coat condition, body shape, ear length and toenail condition.[101]

Show jumping

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Main article: Rabbit show jumping

Rabbit show jumping, a form of animal sport between rabbits, began in the 1970s in Sweden and has since become popular in the United States[102] and Australia.[103] When rabbit jumping was first starting out, the rules of competition were the same as horse show jumping rules. However, rules were later changed to reflect a rabbit's abilities.[104] The first national championship for rabbit show jumping was held in Stockholm, Sweden in 1987. Today some argue that rabbit show jumping is unethical. [105]

Abandonment

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Many pet rabbits are abandoned by their owners, especially those purchased as "Easter bunnies". In 2017, they were the United States' third most abandoned pet.[106] Rabbits are also frequently abandoned or relinquished to shelters due to challenges with rabbit housing, behavioral issues, or simply a loss of interest in the pet.[85] Some of these abandoned pets are adopted and go on to become family pets in various forms.[107] As domestic rabbits have been bred to be docile compared to wild rabbits, they will be less able to care or fend for themselves should they be abandoned, or if they escape into the wild.[108]

Human uses

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See also: Cuniculture

Rabbits have been kept as livestock since ancient times for their meat,[50][6] and in modern times have been raised for wool,[52] fur,[51] and use in scientific research as laboratory animals.[109]

Meat rabbits

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Meat-breed rabbits in hutches

Rabbits have been raised for commercial meat production in various parts of the world since at least the early 1900s.[110][111] Intensive efforts to efficiently farm rabbits for meat began in the 1920s in southern California, and developed through the use of techniques such as artificial insemination in addition to the general advancement of rabbit veterinary medicine, nutritional needs and disease control.[112] Breeds such as the New Zealand and Californian are frequently utilized for meat in commercial rabbitries. These breeds have efficient metabolisms and grow quickly; they are ready for slaughter by approximately 14 to 16 weeks of age. The main consumer of rabbit meat in the world was China, as of 2017,[113] though the production of rabbit meat in China has decreased by 33.8% from 2010 to 2020, and global production has decreased by 24.1% over the same period.[114]

Rabbit fryers are the most common type of rabbit sold for meat, and make up more than 85% of the market share. They are raised to roughly 2 months of age, and weigh between 1.7–2 kg (3.7–4.4 lb) live weight.[115] Rabbit roasters, stewers and "mature rabbits" make up a less defined category with a smaller portion of the market share. They generally have a live weight of over 1.8 kg (4.0 lb) and are raised to over 6 months of age.[116] Stewers have been additionally described as rabbits weighing over 3 kg (6.6 lb) and as a category marketed at a lower price than fryers.[115] Some rabbit farmers opt to sell the skins of slaughtered rabbits to supplement income;[112] the skins of meat rabbits may be dried with heat alone and are often sold without tanning.[115]

Wool rabbits

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Rabbits such as the Angora, American Fuzzy Lop, and Jersey Wooly produce wool. However, since the American Fuzzy Lop and Jersey Wooly are both dwarf breeds, only the much larger Angora breeds[97] such as the English Angora, Satin Angora, Giant Angora, and French Angoras are used for commercial wool production.[117] Their long fur is sheared, combed, or plucked (gently pulling loose hairs from the body during molting) and then spun into yarn used to make a variety of products.[118] Angora sweaters can be purchased in many clothing stores and is generally mixed with other types of wool due to the poor durability of angora fibers on their own.[119]

Peaux de Lapin ("Rabbit skins") by Edme Bouchardon (1737)

Fur rabbits

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Rabbit skins are often produced as a byproduct of the meat production process, but some breeds have been bred specifically for superior fur quality. The main breed raised for its fur is the Rex rabbit.[97] White rabbit fur may be dyed in an array of colors that are not produced naturally, which has introduced demand for furs from New Zealand White rabbits; the practice of deceptively dyeing white furs to look like the pelts of other animals was popular in the 1930s.[51] Rabbits in the fur industry are fed a diet focused for robust coat production and pelts are harvested after the rabbit reaches prime condition, which takes longer than in the meat industry. Rabbit fur is used in local and commercial textile industries throughout the world.[120][121]

Experimentation

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Pasture-raised rabbits in a moveable enclosure

Rabbits have been and continue to be used in laboratory work such as production of antibodies for vaccines and research of human male reproductive system toxicology. In 1972, around 450,000 rabbits were used for experiments in the United States, decreasing to around 240,000 in 2006.[109] The Environmental Health Perspective, published by the National Institute of Health, states, "The rabbit [is] an extremely valuable model for studying the effects of chemicals or other stimuli on the male reproductive system."[122] Rabbits are also used in the study of bronchial asthma and related lung diseases,[123] stroke prevention treatments,[124] cystic fibrosis,[125] diabetes,[126] and cancer.[127]

The New Zealand White is one of the most commonly used breeds for research and testing.[128]

Cosmetics testing

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Rabbits have been used for the Draize test, a method of testing cosmetics on animals.[129][130] Animal rights activists have opposed animal experimentation for non-medical purposes, such as the testing of cosmetic and cleaning products, citing it as an example of cruelty in animal research.[131] These efforts have resulted in the decreased use of rabbits in these areas.[132] Albino rabbits are typically used in the Draize tests because they have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment makes the effects easier to visualize.[133]

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